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($ !"A<< c dTABLE A'''''dxd,cAZ"Arial Regular./*OLE*WPC$hhpXXXX,,,,519art %Q }%Q #? @?#?#?@? +|@ +|@   22226ffffffֿp= ף(\?TQ  +|@  +|@  +|@  +|@   +|@  +|@  +|@?  +|@  +|@   + |@   + |@   + |@   + |@   + |@  +|@  +|@  +|@  +|@  +|@?  +|@  +|@  +|@  +|@  +|@ 4oC` ` A"Arial Regular +|@  +|@CeeA"Arial Regular +|@  +|@CeeA"Arial Regular +|@  +|@CeeA"Arial Regular +|@  +|@CeeA"Arial Regular +|@  +|@CeeA"Arial Regular +|@  +|@CeeA"Arial Regular +|@  +|@CeeA"Arial Regular +|@  +|@CeeA"Arial Regular +|@  +|@C eeA"Arial Regular + |@  + |@ C A"Arial Regular + |@  + |@ C A"Arial Regular + |@   + |@ C A"Arial Regular + |@   + |@   // c% Share of Education% for educationPlansLegendd Q& @333333@@ffffff@ @333333@ W %Q +3     +1 s   s +13 ) w OA"Arial RegularO @    %ShareofEducation13 `22h h  22h  2+13" 2h  ' Uy  B+3 T oOA"Arial RegularO @    Plans,2Z<~OA"Arial RegularO @    %foreducation3 22w3 f+OA"Arial RegularO @    13 w3 O+OA"Arial RegularO @    23 w3  +OA"Arial RegularO @    33 ' ' w3 [ +OA"Arial RegularO @    43 y y w3 D  +OA"Arial RegularO @    53   w3   +OA"Arial RegularO @    63 w3 P+OA"Arial RegularO @    73 23 =wOA"Arial RegularO @    03 23 ='OA"Arial RegularO @    13 23 =9OA"Arial RegularO @    23 2  3 =LOA"Arial RegularO @    33 23 =^OA"Arial RegularO @    43 2113 =qOA"Arial RegularO @    53 2C C 3 = OA"Arial RegularO @    63 2V V 3 =  OA"Arial RegularO @    73 2h h 3 =  OA"Arial RegularO @    8? @???@?????????WPWin 6.0/OLE 1.0 Prefix Information MarkerWPDraw30.ChartZࡱ;   !"#$%&'()*+Root Entrya.@p*2Ole 9WPG20(CompObjZ)F! WPWin61[2]ࡱ a.@pWP Draw 3.0 Chart Embed SourceWPDraw30.Chartࡱ; PP  ࡱ; WPC$hhpXXXX,,,,519art %Q }%Q #? @?#?#?@? +|@ +|@   22226ffffffֿp= ף(\?TQ  +|@  +|@  +|@  +|@   +|@  +|@  +|@?  +|@  +|@   + |@   + |@   + |@   + |@   + |@  +|@  +|@  +|@  +|@  +|@?  +|@  +|@  +|@  +|@  +|@ 4oC` ` A"Arial Regular +|@  +|@CeeA"Arial Regular +|@  +|@CeeA"Arial Regular +|@  +|@CeeA"Arial Regular +|@  +|@CeeA"Arial Regular +|@  +|@CeeA"Arial Regular +|@  +|@CeeA"Arial Regular +|@  +|@CeeA"Arial Regular +|@  +|@CeeA"Arial Regular +|@  +|@C eeA"Arial Regular + |@  + |@ C A"Arial Regular + |@  + |@ C A"Arial Regular + |@   + |@ C A"Arial Regular + |@   + |@   // c% Share of Education% for educationPlansLegendd Q& @333333@@ffffff@ @333333@ W %Q +3     +1 s   s +13 ) w OA"Arial RegularO @    %ShareofEducation13 `22h h  22h  2+13" 2h  ' Uy  B+3 T oOA"Arial RegularO @    Plans,2Z<~OA"Arial RegularO @    %foreducation3 22w3 f+OA"Arial RegularO @    13 w3 O+OA"Arial RegularO @    23 w3  +OA"Arial RegularO @    33 ' ' w3 [ +OA"Arial RegularO @    43 y y w3 D  +OA"Arial RegularO @    53   w3   +OA"Arial RegularO @    63 w3 P+OA"Arial RegularO @    73 23 =wOA"Arial RegularO @    03 23 ='OA"Arial RegularO @    13 23 =9OA"Arial RegularO @    23 2  3 =LOA"Arial RegularO @    33 23 =^OA"Arial RegularO @    43 2113 =qOA"Arial RegularO @    53 2C C 3 = OA"Arial RegularO @    63 2V V 3 =  OA"Arial RegularO @    73 2h h 3 =  OA"Arial RegularO @    8? @???@?????????BOlePartOlePres000$"#   "3f3333f333ff3fffff3f3f̙3f3333f3333333333f3333333f3f33ff3f3f3f3333f3333333f3̙333333f333ff3ffffff3f33f3ff3f3f3ffff3fffffffffff3fffffff3fff̙ffff3fffff???__ߟ߿3f3333f333ff3fffff3f3f̙3f3f3333f333ff3fffff̙̙3̙f̙̙̙3f̙3f3f3333f333ff3fffff3f3f̙3f45  !Q - !) --% - 55- --- !)--%+33++-&Arial-- .  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CX XX3XC&# & XCX  0  . !"&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK((3`$ 6!      0  (%$  1  ,cAZ"Arial RegularAAAA7Hairlinedxd)Hairline d,cAZ"Arial Regular,cAZ"Arial Regular _ :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  1  .  CS &C&CpԀU.S.DepartmentofLabor,BytheSweat&ToilofChildren:TheUseofChildLaborinAmericanImports(WashingtonD.C.:DOL,1994),9 n [hereafterBSTC]. >  8 :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  2  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpԀIndiaWest(21October1994).   #CS+Sq##C&Cp &CSߐ#  :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  3  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpHumanRightsWatch,TheSmallHandsofSlavery:BondedChildLaborinIndia,(NewYork:September1996).Weareespeciallygratefulto   ArvindGanesawhoputtogetherthisreportforsharingsomeofhisinsightswithus.#CS+Sq##C&Cp &CSߐ#     :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  4  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpԀRajeevAnand, UruguayRoundTextinPerspective,EconomicandPoliticalWeekly(2May1992)andDeepakNayyar, TheDunkelText:An v Assessment,SocialScientist,Vol.20,Nos.12,JanuaryFebruary1992.#CS+Sq##C&Cp &CSߐ# F ЂLevel 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5 ~ :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  5  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpLondonTimes(3October1878).BengaleesletterintheTimesof13September1878enjoinsLancashiretorecognizeitseconomicinterests.  ThefirstFactoriesActinIndiapassedin1881asaresultofthesepressures:itprohibitedemploymentofchildrenunder7andlimitedtheworkhoursofchildrenbetween7and12to9hours/day.#CS+St##C&Cp &CSߓ# b  G :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  6  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpAnILO1996ReportquotedinIndiaWest(14June1996).#CS+Sq##C&Cp &CSߐ#    :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  7  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpFormoreontheKathieLeeGiffordtale,seeVijayPrashad, NoSweat,Nature,Society&Thought(forthcoming).#CS+Sq##C&Cp &CSߐ#    :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  9  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpԀS.Vijayagopalan,ChildLabourintheCarpetIndustry(NewDelhi:NationalCouncilofAppliedEconomicResearch,1993),56.#CS+Sq##C&Cp &CSߐ# |   :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  10  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpUNICEF,ChildLaborintheCarpetWeavingIndustryinPunjab(Lahore:UNICEF,1992),7andB.N.Juyal,ChildLabourandExploitationin  theCarpetIndustry(NewDelhi:IndianSocialInstitute,1987).#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ#   L :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  11  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpԀOperationResearchGroup(Madras)studycitedinBSTC,78.#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ# z   :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  12  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpILRERFcanbereachedat100MarylandAvenue,NE,Box74,WashingtonD.C.20002.TheypublishWorkerRightsNewsandapowerful  monographbyPharisJ.HarveyandLaurenRiggincalledTradingAwaytheFuture:ChildLaborinIndiasExportIndustrywhichisafulllength  analysisofIndiaschildlaborlawsandtheprevalenceofchildlaborinexportmanufacture.#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ#    * h :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  13  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpCitedinSukumarSingh,ExploitedChildreninIndia(Calcutta:ShilaSingh,1989),115.#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ#    :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  14  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpBSTC,83#CS+Su##C&Cp &CSߔ#.    2 :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  15  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpIndiaAbroad(30September1994).#CS+Su##C&Cp &CSߔ#    :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  16  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpG.Varandani,ChildLabourandWomenWorkers(NewDelhi:Ashish,1994),69;ILO,ChildreninBondage(Geneva:ILO,1992),12andNeera `  Burra,ChildLabourintheGemPolishingIndustryinJaipur(Noida:NationalLabourInstitute,1991),13.ChiefJusticeBhagwatiisquotedinR.A. 0  Sensor, TheCrimeofSlavery:ChildLabourinSouthAsia,HumanRights,Vol.4,April1994.#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ#     :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  17  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpMyronWeiner,TheChildandStateinIndia.ChildLaborandEducationPolicyinComparativePerspective(Princeton:PrincetonUniversity |  Press,1991).#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ# L  q :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  18  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpGovernmentofIndia,MinistryofLabour,ChildLabourinIndia(Delhi:LabourBureau,1954),45.#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ#    :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  19  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpILO,Towardstheabolitionofchildlabour:ILOpolicyanditsimplicationsforILOtechnicalcooperationactivities,6(Geneva:ILO,1993).#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ# z  N :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  20  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpMirAliHusainandMayaYajnik, VirtualWork,RealLabor,SAMAR,No.6,Summer1996andSalimLakha, TheNewInternationalDivisionof  LabourandtheIndianComputerSoftwareIndustry,ModernAsianStudies,Vol.28,No.2,1994.Lakhasmaterialobviateshisconclusions.#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ#    :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  21  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpKiranBhatty, ChildLabour:BreakingtheViciousCycle,Economic&PoliticalWeekly(17February1996).#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ# x   :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  22  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpExceptIndiaWestwhichcarriedsuchananalysison12January1996byVijayPrashad, WhatKeepsChildLaborinBondageinIndia.#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ#   d :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  23  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpKaushikBasu, ThePoorNeedChildLabor,NewYorkTimes(29November1994).#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ#    :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  24  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpGovernmentofIndia,ProblemsoftheThirdPlan:ACriticalMiscellany(NewDelhi:MinistryofInformationandBroadcasting,1961),49.#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ# X   :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  25  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpRanjitS.Teja, IMFsupportedprogramhelpsIndiaemergefromcrisis,IMFSurvey(21September1992),285.#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ#   = :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  26  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpMohsinS.KhanandM.D.Knight, StabilizationProgramsinDevelopingCountries:AFormalFramework,IMFStaffPapers,March1981.The  UNDPcriticizedthesepolicieswithoutmakinganystructuralmovestowardschangingthem: theIMFhasexertedastronginfluenceoverdevelopingcountriesbysettingstiffconditionsontheloansitoffers.Thisconditionalityhasgenerallybeenmonetaristanddeflationary,obliginggovernmentstoreducetheirdemandforimportsbycurtailingoveralldemandcuttingbackonbothprivateandpublicspending.Thesecutbackshaveoftenreducedconsumption,investmentandemploymentandstifledeconomicgrowth.UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram,Human    DevelopmentReport(NewYork:UNDP,1992),75.#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ#    :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  27  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpOnconsumergoods,seeDelhiScienceForum,AnythingforaDollar(Delhi:DSF,1989).Onmilitaryhardware,between1986and1988the > IndiangovernmentimportedarmsclosetothetotalamountedpurchasedbybothIranandIraq,andtheywereinthemidstofagruesomewar.ThesefiguresareavailablefromtheInternationalPeaceResearchInstitute(Stockholm).#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ#    :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  28  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpOn4July1991,thePrimeMinisterP.V.NarasimhaRaowentonnationaltelevisiontodeclarethat complexmaladiescallfordrastic Z  remediesasheinformedthenationthatIndiahadenteredanewagreementwiththeIMF.Theforeignexchangereservesfelltotheequivalentoftwoweeksimports:totidethecountryover,thegovernmentairlifted47tonsofgoldtoBritainassecurityagainstashorttermhardcurrencyloanof$400millionfromtheBankofLondon.#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ#  L  : :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  29  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpGOI,MinistryofLabour,ChildLabour,2.#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ# 4   q :O%CX XX3XC&Cp & XCX  30  .  ݀+&Cp & &C&Cp+S &+&CpQuotedinSominiSengupta, IndiasYoungWorkers,NewYorkNewsday(9February1995).#CS+Sr##C&Cp &CSߑ#   6!    3X3X3  TRP'3 Letter Landscape3' '3 Letter Landscape3'TThoseThatBeInBondage:  ChildLaborandIMFStrategyinIndia.XX  FOILpamphlet#1(Fall1996)  rXXDSr  Jabkabhibiktahaibazaarmeinmazdurkagosht  h ShaharonpegaribonkalahubahtahaiAgsisinemeinrahrahkeubaltihai,napuchh!Apnedilparmujheqabuhinahirrahtahai.Whenevertheworkmansfleshissoldinthemarket,Thebloodofthepoorflowsinthestreets,̜Anunspeakablefirerisesinmybreast̜NothingcanshacklemMyheartIIhavenocontrolovermyselfheart....FaizAhmedFaiz, RaqibSe,NaqsheFaryadi(1943)#rDS߬##XXr#    XQ=X` hp x (#%'0*XQ 5 XX+\  5(X..(  TheContemporaryEmergenceofthe l ProblemofChildLaboranditsGravity+X X +\ (x   XN:X` hp x (#%'0*XN  TheInternationalLabourOrganization(ILO)claimsthattherearebetween100200millionchildlaborersintheworld.+S X+XԜ E  '?S+S?&Cp &?S  1      כOfthesemillions,theILOestimates 6 thatabouthalfmaybefoundinSouthAsiaandSouthEastAsia.Bangladeshaccountsforbetween5.7and15millionchildren,Indiaaccountsforbetween17.5and100million,Nepalaccountsfor3millionandPakistanaccountsforbetween2and19millionchildren.TheSouthAsianCoalitiononChildServitudeestimatesthatthereare80millionchildrenunder14beingforcedtowork(55millioninIndia,10millioninPakistan,8millioninNepaland7millioninSriLankaandϜBangladesh). F  '?&Cp & &?&Cp?&Cp & &?&Cp  2      כThevarianceinthenumbersmayreflectthe L"! specificgoalsofthosewhodothecountingjustasmuchasitdemonstratesthatthesechildrenworkinunorganizedsectorsoftheglobaleconomy,sectorswhichprovidemuchoftheworldswealth,butwhicharethemselvesnotregulatedbytheorganizedmightofinternationalandnationalgovernments.T:X` hp x (#%'0*XXT L Ourpurposehereisnottochallengeanyfigureortotoutanyoneofthesenumbersasthecorrectone.Themainissueisnotwhetherthereare100or200millionchildlaborers,butthattherearechildrenwhomustworkinunhealthyfactoryconditionsinordertobolstertheflaggingeconomiesofstateswhosepassportsthechildrenbarelyhold.Wearenotofthebeliefthatthefactoryconditionsareacceptableforadultseither:ourpositionisthatfactoryconditionsmustberadicallyalteredinfavoroftheworkerswhoproducethesocialwealth fromwhichtheyarealienated. |!/ 7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7  7LXXdXXd7    Sincetheissueofchildlaborisontheinternational agenda,we,asmembersofFOIL,wanttoofferaperspectivetoadebatewhichhasthusfarremainedatthelevelofsimplemorality,i.e.withoutaconsiderationofthewayinwhichthenewinternationalpoliticalandeconomicdevelopmentsengenderanexpansionofsuchformsoflabor(sweatshops,outwork,piecework).Ifoneistobeoutragedbychildlabor,onemustalsobeoutragedbythewayinwhichindustriallybackwardnationsarebeingforcedtoturntosuchformsofextractioninordertocovertheirdebtservicingarrangements.Wedonotclaimtoofferanexhaustiveaccountofchildlabor(forthat,turntothestudyconductedbyHumanRightsϜWatch G  '?&Cp & &?&Cp?&Cp & &?&Cp  3      ).Ourpurposeistogroundtheproblemofchildlabor p  inrecentdevelopmentsininternationalpoliticaleconomy.  WhydidSenatorTomHarkin(DemIowa)proposeabill(ChildLaborDeterrenceAct)tofightchildlaborinindustriallybackwardnationsinSeptember1994?ThebillattackstheimportationofgoodsintotheUSwhichareproducedbytheexploitationofchildlabor.IndiaisaprincipleexampleforHarkinandhismainally,KailashSatyarthi(conveneroftheSouthAsianCoalitiononChildServitude),wontwomajorhumanrightsawardsaspartofamediablitz:theTrumpeterAwardandtheRobertF.KennedyHumanRightsAward(1996).AtthehearingoftheHarkinBillintheLaborandHumanResourcesCommitteeinSeptember1994,Harkindeclaredthat todaytheUnitedStatesissubsidizingtheexploitationofyoungchildrenindevelopingnations.Sen.HowardMetzenbaum(DemOhio),ChairmanoftheCommittee,offeredthememorablephrase: BuyanorientalrugandyouhaveagoodchanceofwalkingonthelaborofanIndianchild.WhilewearenotindisagreementwithSen.Metzenbaumsmoralposition,wemustalsoaskthequestion:WhyhastheUSmountedthewhitesteedinthe1990s?     InSeptember1986,theGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTradeinauguratedtheUruguay(8th)RoundofGATT P " whichwaspresentedin1991astheMultilateralTradeNegotiations(thefamousDunkelDraft).TheAgreementonTextilesandClothing(whichwillbeintegratedintoGATTin2003)proposestoallowforgreatermarketaccessforgoods.TheUS,forexample,setsquotaforimportsofIndiantextiles:in2003thetreatyproposedtoincreaseexportquotagrowthϜrates.?S &?&Cp H  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  4      ?X X &?&CpԛOnemightarguethattooffsetthefuturequotas,  ( theUStextileindustryfelttheneedtoraisetheissueofequalizationofinputcostssothatitdoesnotloseitsexistingmarketshareintheUS.Thisissurelyconjecture,butonemotivatedbyhistory:thefirstproposaltoendchildlaborinIndia,afterall,camein1878anditwasdrivenbyjustthismotive.In1878,theLancashiretextileindustrylobbiedWhitehalltotakesternmeasuresagainsttheuseofchildlaborintheIndiantextileindustry.ChildlaborhadrecentlybeenbannedinEnglandandLancashirefeltthatIndianindustrywouldbeabletoproducetextilesatalowcostbyitsuseofchildren.Hence,LancashirejoinedMr.SorabjeeShapurjeeBengalee,CBE,andLordShaftesburyinacampaigntoendchildlaborinIndia.LordShaftesburyslettertotheLondonTimesoffersusanadequateillustrationofthemotiveforces:0 L  Theremedyoftheevilisamatterofboth  : humanityandjusticehumanitytotheoppressedwomenandchildrenandofjusticetothemillownersofLancashire,whoarelaidunderrestrictionsfromwhichtheIndianmillownersareentirelyfree.?S X?X P  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  5      D?L.L.   ,|@   ?X X &?&CpThemotivesweresimple:ifthecoloniesused children,theymaybeabletomanufacturegoodsatalowercost.WedonotquestionSenatorHarkinsmotives,forheisanhonorabledefenderoflaborrights.Ourpointisthis:theglobalinitiativeagainstchildlaborisnotsimplygearedtowardsthechildren,butitisequallygearedtowardstheinterestsofmanufactureintheadvancedindustrialnations.Forthisreason,mostmovesintheadvancedcapitalistnationsdonotofferawaytorehabilitatethechildren;theirinitiativesaredesignedtopunishthemanufacturersintheindustriallybackwardnations(theHarkinBill,forinstance,askedtheUStobantheimportofgoodsmanufacturedbychildlabor).We,inFOIL,callfortheorganizationofthechildrensothattheymayfightfortheirliberationalongsidethetradeunionsandotherorgansoftheworkerseconomicstruggle.  ThatthegrowthofchildlaborisfullyimplicatedinthestructuresoftheemergentglobalizedeconomyisclearfromtheILOsanalysisofchildlaborintheUS:0   thegrowthoftheservicesector,therapid  increaseinthesupplyofparttimejobsandthesearchforamoreflexibleworkforcehavecontributedtotheexpansionofthechildlabormarket.?S X?XԜ R  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  6      ?X X &?&Cp.~   Wealsomakethispointtopreventtheeasyassumptionthatchildlaborisaproblemonlyinindustriallybackwardnations.Thedemiseofthewelfarestateandoftheemergenceofsubcontractingasaway  tocutcostsresultedintheincreaseinproductionoutsidetheconfinesofafactory(whereregulationandunionactivitymadecertainthatthecorporationscouldnotberoutineinitsabuses).Suchunregulatedproductionspawnsthegrowthofchildlaborandofadisregardforworkingconditionsingeneral.TherecentincidentsurroundingKathieLeeGiffordisyetanotherindicatorofthesedevelopments.?S X?X S  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  7      ?X X &?&Cpԛ  J% T:X` hp x (#%'0*XXT?\  X?X L ExtentofChildLaborinIndia?X X ?\Ԁ  '  L Muchoftheuseofchildrenoccursinagriculture:bothonfamilyfarmsandinlargescaleagribusinessoutfits(includingfishingplantations,orchardsandteaplantations).Dalitandadivasiboysandgirlsaredisproportionatelyrepresentedamongworkingchildren;      '?X X X?X?&Cp & X?X  8      כ P - overtheyears,thepercentageofboysworkinginagriculturehasdecreased,whilethepercentageofgirlshasincreased.Muchoftheproducegrownwiththeassistanceofchildlaborfindsitswayintointernationalmarkets(tea,coffee,fish,foodgrains).Childrenworktoassistthefamilyunitbydoingchores,buttheyalsoworkasdomesticservants,hawkersandscavengersformodestwages.Whiletheseformsoflaborneedtobepubliclyreassessed,ourpamphletwillconcentrateontheextentofchildlaborintheindustrialsector.TheobviousinternationalimplicationsofthissectoralertthoseofuswholiveinEuroAmericatoactinconcertwiththechildrenwhoseekafreeandprotectiveworld. XW=X` hp x (#%'0*XXW   L Carpets :between300,000and400,000Indianchildren ; workinthemanufactureofhandknottedcarpets,themostcovetedcarpetonthemarkettoday.ThesechildrenworkinaregionconcentratedaroundBhadohi, < > MirzapurandZaipurinUttarPradesh(UP).Theysufferfromendemictuberculosis,otherrespiratorydiseases,skintrouble,eyestrainandwornoutlimbs(aNationalCouncilofAppliedEconomicResearchstudyfoundthat thechildrensurveyedappearedtobefamishedandhadastuntedgrowth).?S &?&Cp T  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  9      ?X X &?&CpԛIn1993,Indiaexported  morethan$170millionworthofcarpetstotheUS.InPakistan,aboutamillionchildrenworkinthecarpetindustry.?S X?X W  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  10      ?X X &?&Cpԛ r    XN:X` hp x (#%'0*XN XW=X` hp x (#%'0*XXW    DiamondIndustry :between6,000and100,000 >   Indianchildrenworkinthediamondindustry,wheretheycutandpolishdiamondchipsforexporttotheUSandEurope.In1993,Indiaexportedmorethan$1billionworthofgemstones;inthatyear,thelargestexportbyvaluefromIndiatotheUSwasingemstones.TheOperationsResearchGroupsingledouttheconditionsinthediamondplantsinSurat,Gujarat(siteofarecentplagueandoftheriotsof1993): Itfoundchildren,mostlyboysbetween12and13yearsold,polishingdiamondsforanaverageofseventoninehoursadayinunhygienicconditions.Thechildrensufferedfromeyestrain,headaches,legandshoulderpain,malaria,discolorationofhair,rottenteethanddysentery.?S X?X X  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  11      ?X X &?&Cpԛ    XN:X` hp x (#%'0*XN XW=X` hp x (#%'0*XXW    GlassandGlassware :between8,000and50,  000Indianchildrenworkintheglassandglasswareindustry.In1992,Indiaexportedmorethan$2millionworthoftheseproductstotheUS.InareportinMay1994,theInternationalLabor ( x RightsEducationandResearchFunddescribedtheglassfactoriesinIndiaas DantesInfernoduetotheintenseheatofthefurnace,lackofventilation,brokenglasseverywhere,danglingelectricwires,andworkerswithnoprotectiveϜequipment.?S X?X Y  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  12      ?X X &?&CpԛThechildreninFirozabad,Agra . ~$ District,UP,whoworkinitsglasswarefactoriessufferfromtuberculosis,mentalretardation,asthma,bronchitis,liverailments,chronicanemia,severeburns(whicharenottreated)aswellasfundamentaldamagetotheirgeneticmatter(showninastudydonebyDr.AshaSinghoftheMaulanaAzadMedicalCollege,Delhi).?S X?X [  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  13      ?X X &?&Cpԛ x +   XN:X` hp x (#%'0*XN XW=X` hp x (#%'0*XXW   L Footwear :about25,000Indianchildrenworkin D - thisindustry.In1993,theUSimportedmorethan$107millionworthoffootwearfromIndia.Thechildrenwhoworkinfootwearfactories,theUSDepartmentofLaborsays,are crampedinpoorlylitrooms,sufferfromcontinuousskincontactwithindustrialadhesivesandbreathevaporsfromϜglues.?S X?X \  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  14      ?X X &?&Cpԛ 4   XN:X` hp x (#%'0*XN L Thesebriefdescriptionsoffersomelightonthetragedyofourcontemporarylaborregimes.Inthenextsection,wewillassesstheprincipalreasonsofferedfortheextentofchildlabor.However,beforethat,itisimperativethatweunderstandthattheincreaseinchildlaborduringthecourseofthe1980'shasbeenanything butsteady.TheGovernmentofIndiarecognizedthe < sharpriseintherecordedratesforchildlaborduringthecourseofthedecade: ?S X?X*w(')ddd Xdd Xdd Xw, dd ,8dd +     1961(Census) 7-  P -@14.5-@7@A$14.5 7-+ P -@14.5 -@ 71971(Census) 7- R   %@10.8%@7@A$10.8 7-+R   %@10.8 %@ 71981(Census) 7-    333333+@13.6333333+@7@A$13.6 7-+   333333+@13.6 333333+@ 7198788(NationalSampleSurvey) 7-  F  1@17.51@7@A$@@17.5;1/ F  1@17.5  1@ ;?|}?S@ GovernmentofIndiaFiguresforChildLabor(inmillions)    ?X X?|}  IndianbusinessdeniesnotonlytheILOnumbers,butalsothedeflatednumbersoftheIndiangovernment.In1994,Mr.G.K.MoroliaoftheIndianCarpetExportProductionCouncilarguedthatthecarpetindustryonlyhiresthosechildrenwhoseparentssendthemtoacquiretraditionalweavingskills.Labor,hesaid,isfreetocomeandtogo.?S X?X ]  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  15      ?X X &?&CpԛForachildof12,eventheformalfreedoms  ofwageslaverymustsurelybeunclearinthefaceofthesupervisorswrath.TheapologiesoftheCarpetCouncilareapatheticattempttojustifyitsculpability.Numerousstudieshaveestablishedthecentralityofviolenceandcoercioninthelaborprocess.AUNICEFstudyofMirzapur(UP)foundthatmostofthechildlaborers didnotcometotheplaceoftheiremploymentvoluntarilyrathertheywereeitherkidnapedordraggedawaybyMafiagangsfromtheirparentstoworkaschildlabourinmostappallingconditions.TheIndiangovernmentadmitswidespreadprevalenceofbondagerelationsand  " violenceinthecarpetindustry.Othersectors,suchasglasswareandgemstones,arenotmuchdifferent.TheformerChiefJusticeofIndia,P.N.Bhagwati,foundexamplesofchildrenatworkfor1420hours/day: theyarebeatenup,branded(withredhotironrods)andevenhungfromtreesupsidedown.?S X?X ^  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  16      ?X X &?&Cpԛ . ~' T:X` hp x (#%'0*XXT?\  X?X L TraditionalExplanations?X X ?\  J)  L Threetraditionalexplanationswhichdatefromtheearlynineteenthcenturycontinuetoholdthefloorasdogma: XW=X` hp x (#%'0*XXW  L SocietalAttitudes :Societiesmakevalue  / decisionsoverwhetherchildrenshouldwork.Certainsocietiesdonotfindanythingwrongwiththepractice,whileothersdo. L TheLackofCompulsoryEducation :Without "r3 compulsoryeducation,childrenarefatedtowork. L Poverty :Thatparentsarepoor,wearetold, D5 explainstheirchildslabor.Therichdonotoffertheirchildrenaslaborers.  XN:X` hp x (#%'0*XN L Thefirstexplanationdoesnotilluminatetheproblemofchildlabor.Itoperatesmoreasajustificationforitsexistenceratherthanananalysisofitsorigins(whichimpliesamodeforitseradication).Theexplanationdoesnotaddresstheissueofcontradictoryvalueswithinanation.Indiansholdavarietyofnotionswithregardtotheemploymentofchildrenandfewparentsarecallousabouttheconditionswithinwhich ,@ theirchildrenmustlabor.Suchgeneralizationsareproductsoforientalistassumptionsandaretheequivalentofposing`divorceasanAmericanvalue.Further,theonlypolicydecisionwhichstemsfromsuch societalattitudekindsofanalysisisonethatcallsforchangedvalues,asuggestionthatisbothbanalandinsubstantive.  ThemajorproponentofthesecondexplanationisDr.MyronWeiner(MIT)whoattributestheprevalenceofchildlabor largelytothefailureoftheeducationalϜsystem. _  '?X X X?X?&Cp & X?X  17      ?S &?&CpԀ?X X?SWeinerisjoinedbytheIndiangovernment    which,in1954,arguedthatelementaryeducationwillplayamajorrolein checkingtheevilsofchildlabour.?S X?X a  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  18      ?X X &?&Cpԛ x  Lackofeducationdoesnotnecessarilyleadtochild ^  labor.ThereareanumberofchildreninIndiatodaywhowhileoutsideanysystemofeducationdonotendupinthecarpetorgemstonesweatshops,simplybecausetheirparents,whoonceslightlybetterpositionedintermsoftheirearningcapacities,donotwantsuchalifefortheirchildren.Parents,whetherinIndiaortheUS,donotwillinglysendtheirchildrenintosuchinhumanworkenvironments.Povertythen,thelastofthetraditionalexplanations,mayseemtoemergeasthebestexplanationforchildlaborinIndia.  Whileitistruethatextremepovertyiswhatforcesparentstoaccedetotheinhumanityofallowingtheirchildrentoworkinsuchterribleconditions,suchanexplanationisbothfartoouniversalandpartialtobemeaningful.Universalandpartialbecause,anynumberofsocialillsinIndiaorforthatmatter,inanypartoftheworldcanbepartiallyexplainedthroughpovertychildlaborinIndia,crimeinmetropolitanUS,highinfant   mortalityinthethirdworld,thedrugeconomyinthefirstworld,childprostitutioninSouthAsiaandantiimmigrantsentimentsinNorthAmericathelistcansurelybeendless.Whattheuniversalityofsuchexplanationshideisthemoreparticularstructuralreasonsthatconstitutethephenomena.Bypointingtopoverty,allwemanagetodoistoavoidthemorepertinentstructuralcausesthatoutlinethephenomenainquestionandthusalsoavoidstructuralpolicywork.WhatthenarethespecificstructuralcausesfortheexplosionofchildlaborinIndia? L Acluetoansweringthequestioncomesourwayifwearetoreexaminecarefullythestatisticsonchildlaborpresentedinthelastsection.Afteradrasticfallinthenumbersintheimmediatepostindependenceperiod,childlaboremergesasagrowingphenomenayetagaininthelate1970'sand1980's.ItisonlybyexaminingthenatureofthechangesthattheIndianpoliticaleconomyunderwentinthelate1970'sandthe1980'sthatonecanbegintopinpointthestructuralcausesofchildlaborinIndia.ItwaswithIndiraGandhisemergencyregimeof197577thatashiftintheIndianeconomytowardsamodelofexportorientedgrowthbeganagrowthmodelthathasbecomingincreasinglypopularinthethirdworldunderthetutelageoftheIMFandtheWorldBank(Wemustnoteherethat1981wastheyearthatIndianegotiateditsfirstIMFloan.ForabriefanalysisoftheIndianeconomyinthepostemergencyphaseseeAppendixA).Theexportorientedgrowthmodelproducedaneconomiccrisisbythelate1980's,markedbyaseverebalanceofpaymentsandinternalcapitalgenerationproblem.ThiswasfollowedbynewIMFstricturesintheformofIndiaacceptingmoreorlessin  > tototheStructuralAdjustmentsProgram(SAP)ofinternalausterityandeconomicliberalizationauthoredbytheseBrettonWoodsinstitutions.Thismeantarapidfallinavailablefundsforanyinternalsocialprioritiesadomainalreadyconsiderablyweakenedbymorethan10yearsofexportorientedgrowthcoupledwithaheightenedexportorientedeconomythathadatitscentertheglobalmarketdemandsratherthananyinternalpriority.Giventhecrisisofthe1990'sandthemodesofstructuringtheglobaleconomy,India,likemanyotherAfricanandLatinAmericannationshadlittlechoiceoranyleewayforalternatemodelsoforganizingitseconomy,lestitincurthewrathoftheIMF/WB.Whatsuchananalysisdoesisplacetheexplanatoryvariable povertyinthecontextofthechangesinapoliticaleconomyandthusattemptsatidentifyingthespecificitiesofthestructuresthatconstitutepovertyandattendantlaborpractices.Thepovertyofthenation,inrelationtoglobalrelationsofproduction,leadstoanintensifieduseofchildlabor,notablyinaphasewhenitundergoesapolicyofstabilizationundertheoverallguidanceoftheInternationalMonetaryFund.ThishasrecentlybeenrecognizedbytheILO.?S X?X b  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  19      #?X X &?&Cpy#ԛ t   OnehasonlytolookattheexpendituresthattheIndianstateundertookoneducationtounderstandthe          impactoftheexportorientedgrowthmodel.s;,?/+b|0u  `h@E %  y  y sߛThesteepdropintheeducationsectorbeginsinIndiainthe1970's.Theefforttoconnecttheprevalenceofchildlaborwiththelackofuniversaleducationmustthereforebeunderstoodinthecontextofapoliticaleconomyofausterity.WiththecutsineducationimplementedbythestateatthebehestoftheIMF,thedemandofthechildlaborersforuniversaleducationwillnotberecognized.Onemustnotjustcriticizethelackofcompulsoryuniversaleducation,butonemustlinkthosecutsandthestateslackofdeterminationtofollowthroughitsownConstitutionalcharterwiththeglobalizedprocessessetinmotionbyinternationalcapital(throughtheIMF).TheaboveanalysisoftheIndianpoliticaleconomyandtheplaceofchildlaborinitservestoemphasizethestructuralbasisofchildlabor.ThequestiontheniswhatactionscanbesuggestedthatmaymitigatetheproblemofchildlaborinIndia.Forthisweneedtolookatthespecificrelationbetweentheindustriesthatemploychildlaborandtheirplaceintheexportorientedgrowthmodel. L Economicanalysis,ifitdoesnotpayheedtothecapacityofanation,failstoberelevant.ToasktheIndianeconomytoexportgoodswhenitsbasisappearsunabletogeneratemuchthatisexportableappearstobetojoistatwindmills.From1800tothe1940's,theexportsoftheIndianeconomyearnedaprettypennyfortheBritishEmpire.DuringtheSecondWorldWar,theseexportcommoditiesweresuperseded:jute(byplastics),canesugar(bybeetsugar),indigo(byartificialdyes),cotton(byartificialclothandbylongstaplecottonfromUganda),etc.Inthepostcolonialworld,industriallybackwardnationshavebeenrelegatedtothestatusof  > rawmaterialproducers,simpleassemblyplantsorsimplemanufactories;mosthighvaluegoodscontinuetobeproducedorconceptualizedintheoverdevelopedworld.Withthe8thRoundofGATTratifyingtheTradeRelatedIntellectualPropertyRightagreement,itisunlikelythatIndiacanmakeapushintothehighvalueandhightechnologysector.?S X?X c  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  20      #?X X &?&Cp݄#ԛ  d   Industrieswhichutilizechildlaborinverylargenumbershavebornetheburdenofexports(gems,jewelryandgarmentsalonecover30%oftotalexports).Twoexamplesshouldsuffice:(1)Indias diamond exportsproducedthebulkofthe x  exportbill:in196465,IndiaearnedRs.30millionfromdiamondexportsandby198485,thefigureincreasedtoRs.11,720million.Indiaexports6millionkaratsofcutdiamonds,whichisthelargestshareofthe11millionkaratworldmarket.BetweenApril1986andJanuary1987,thediamondexportsfetchedaboutRs.16,000millionfortheexportbill.(2)India,withIranandPakistan,controlstheworld carpet trade.In194748,theexportsearnedIndiaa  mereRs.38million.By1972,theexportsearnedRs.136.9millionandthen,thenumbersincreasedgeometrically:Rs.187million(in197778),Rs.1450million(in198081)andRs.1658million(in198283).Indiasshareoftheworldmarketin1984isabout16%.Inthemid1980's,theexportearningsbegantodecline:Rs.1490million(in198384),Rs.1380million(in198485)andRs.1082.8million(in198586).ThepressureoftheUSdollarandnewlyintensifiedeffortsbythe  Pakistanistatetoleveragethemarketledtothisdecline.Ratherthanreassessthesocialimplicationsofacarpetsector(whichusesbondedchildlaborersasthegovernmentitselfadmittedin1986),thegovernmentofferedcashincentivesofRs.250million/yearandothersubsidiestoincreasecarpetexports.In199192,thecarpetindustryexportedRs.8.47billionandin199394,theindustryexportedRs.18.82billion.Thegovernmentsovertureshelpedlegitimizetheindustry,tocastoutthosewhochallengethealliancebetweentheIMF/Indiangovernment/industryandithelpedtoincreaseanindustrywhichisbuildonthebacksoflittlechildren. L Theindustrialistsandthebureaucracyjustifytheuseofchildlaboronnationalistgrounds:i.e.thedesiretoincreaseexportsinordertomakeIndiacompetitive.TomakeIndiacompetitive,thestatetacitlyacceptstheuseofchildreninindustry.Children,afterall,workforlowerwages,withoutunionizationandforlongerhours.KiranBhattypointsoutthat childrencanbeeasilylaidoffincaseofaslackindemand,withoutcompensation,andthereforemakeidealemployeesinexportindustrieswheredemandisvariable.Thelowercoststhuseffectedallowexporterstosellatlowerprices,therebyapparentlygivingthemacompetitiveadvantage.?S X?X e  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  21      #?X X &?&Cp-#ԛ Z5  L ThelinkbetweenchildlaborandIndiaspoliticaleconomyenablesustodomorethantakeanemptymoralstandagainstchildlabor.Internationalbureaucracies,socialdemocraticgovernmentsinindustriallybackwardnationsandtheirtutorsfromtheneoconservativegovernmentsintheadvancedindustrialnationshaveputforwardthenostrumsofSAPasthepopularprejudiceofgovernanceandpolicy.Noonecan  = makeaclaimtobereasonableontheworldstagewithoutpayingsomeobeisancetothemantrasoftheChicagoBoys(ledbyMiltonFriedman)andtheregurgitatedanticommunismofF.A.Hayek.Suchtheoriespointtowardsanendtothesystemsofsocialdemocraticconstructionenabledbythenationalistregimesinthepostcolonialworld(butnottothesubsidyregimeswhicharesofarleftintactinGermany,FranceandtheUS).EuroAmerica,weargue,setsthestructuralconditionsforsurvival(ornot)intheindustriallybackwardnations,butitisuncomfortablewiththeimplicationsofitsowndemands.Thatisthecharitableposition.Theuncharitablelinesuggeststhatindustryintheadvancedindustrialnationsissimplytryingtoendtheuseofchildlaborintheindustriallybackwardnationsinordertopreventthemfromtranslatingtheirlowcostsintoanincreaseintheirmarketshare.Eitherway,we,inFOIL,areoftheopinionthatwithoutananalysisofthecontemporaryglobalrelationsofproduction,theissueofchildlaborcannotbegrasped.?\  X?X  ChildLaborinIndiaandtheUSResponse#?X X ?\#    FOILsmotivationinproducingthispamphletistointerveneinthepublicdebateonchildlaborintheUS,andmostspecificallytospeaktotheanalysisthatunderliestheHarkinBill(whichnowhasitsRepublicansponsors,suchasRep.C.SmithofNewJersey).  N 0 L Americanpublicdiscussionfailstoinquireafter  the structuralreasons fortheprevalenceofchild  labor. L.L.  0 L Americanpublicpolicygoesafterthe effects of h childlabor(itsproducts)andnotthe reasons for T  theexistenceofchildlabor(povertyandtheuneven&combineddevelopmentundermodernimperialism). L.L. We,asFOIL,seetheHarkinBillaswantingtodoawaywiththeresultsofpovertyratherthanpovertyitself.Wedonotsupportabillwhichanalyzestheproblemofchildlaborwithoutanacknowledgmentoftheroleofcorporationsinastructuralrearrangementoftheglobaleconomy.ThemanufacturersinIndiaandtheIndianStatearenottheonlyoneswhomustbearthepressureofourmorality;theIMF,theWorldBank,thetransnationalcorporations,theinternationalbanksandtheUScommercedepartmentarealljoinedinasystemwhichcreatestheconditionsforanintensificationofsuchlaborpracticeswhichinvolvechildren.WeacknowledgetheculpabilityofthemanufacturersandoftheIndianGovernment,whocynicallyutilizechildreninindustrialfirmsinordertogarnerprofitandforeignexchange(ForabriefhistoryoftherelationbetweentheIndianStateandchildlabor,leadingtoitscurrenteffortsto imagemanagetheproblemseeAppendixB).Nevertheless,wearealsoawarethattheactionsofthefirmsandoftheIndianGovernmentareonlyonecomponentofan internationalensemblewhichworksagainsttheinterests  9 ofworkingpeople(ofwhomworkingchildrenareonepart).   FOIL,inplacingtheaboveanalysisonrecord,wishestodemandoftheAmericanpublicandSen.Harkins,thefollowing:0  ThatanylegislativeeffortintheUSmustbetwo  d prongedaimedbothattheIndianexportindustrywhichutilizeschildlaborandthestructuresof#XX X?X\#+X XXXmultinationalcapital,IMFandWBthatpromotes    suchregimesofcheaplabor.  0  That#XX X+X/#+X XXXԀHarkinandhisfellowliberaldemocrats,make x  publictheserelationssothattheAmericanpublicbeguidedintheiractionsbasedonacomprehensiveanalysisratherthanonethatattemptstoattackonlytheeffects.  +\  X+X  TheNRIsandtheirGrief+X X +\ ^   WhiletheprimaryobjectiveofthispamphletistointerveneinthelargerAmericanpublicdebatearoundtheHarkinsBillwearealsoconcernedaboutoneotherspecificaudiencetheIndianimmigrantclass,thenewgenerationofIndianAmericansandtheIndianAmericanmedia.InthislastsectionFOILwishestospecificallyaddress ourcommunity.  TheIndianAmericanpresswidelyreportedthemovesoftheHarkinBill,thedeathofIqbalMasihandtheaccoladesshoweredonKailashSatyarthi.BothIndia  f Abroad(NewYork)andIndiaWest(SanFrancisco)  offeredstronglywordedsupporttotheantichildlaborlobby.Thispartisanjournalismmustbecommendedeventhoughthenewspapersfailedtoofferacriticalandcomprehensiveanalysisofthereasonsfortheattackonchildlaborandfortheplaceofchildlaborwithintheglobaleconomicrearrangementsunderway.+S X+X f  '?S+S?&Cp &?S  22      ?X X &?&CpԛThere  d$ appeartobefewwhoopenlysupporttheexpansionofchildlaborandveryfewindeedwhojustifytheuseofchildlaborinSouthAsia.Thisuniversalsentimentagainstchildlaborneedstobeapplauded(ifindeeditisasuniversalasitappearsinthemedia). L TheNRIS,ingeneral,shudderbeforeanyadversecriticismofthingsIndian.Certainly,theEuroAmericanmedia(andEuroAmericansocialconsciousnessinsum)doesahorridjobwhenitrepresentsIndia.OrientalistandracistmetaphorsaboundaswritersfailtoacknowledgethestrugglesofIndiansandthevariousvaluesinIndiawhichcompeteonimportantissues.IndiaisoftencondemnedwithoutanactiveappreciationofthecontradictionsofIndiansociety.TheNRI,inreactiontothis,wantstoappearastheembodimentofmodernitybyrejectingallthingsunpleasantinIndia.Thereis,therefore,atendencytohideissuessuchasdowrydeaths,antidalitandanti @6 Muslimviolence,violenceagainstwomen,chronicpovertyandclassdiscontent.FOILrejectstheselfservingnationalismofthisattitude.FOILbelievesthatwemustmakeallianceswiththoseinIndia(andotherSouthAsiannations)whoarefightingagainstoppressionandexploitation;wemustfindlinkagesbetweenthepoliciesofglobalizationfoistedupontheworldby  = internationalcapitalanditsinternationalagencies(IMF,etc.)andrevealtheirstructuralroleinworldaffairs.  NRIswidelysupporttheliberalizationoftheIndianeconomyandthecomponentsoftheSAP.ThepurposeofthispamphletistoemphasizethatthosewhochampionliberalisationpoliciesandtheneweconomicpolicyofthegovernmentofIndia(setinplacein1991)simultaneouslysupportchildlabor.Thereisnosensein  J beinghypocriticallyopposedtochildlaborandinfavoroftheliberalisation.Ifwearetrulyopposedtotheinhumanuseofchildreninunhealthyindustries,thenwemustopposethecurrentformofliberalization.  KaushikBasu,ProfessorofEconomicsatCornellUniversity,quitecorrectlypointsoutthatthebanonimportofgoodsproducedbychildrenwillnotendtheconditionswhichfosterchildlabor. g  '?X X X?X?&Cp & X?X  23      ?S &?&CpԀ?X X?SSuchabanwillease *z  theconscienceofthosewholiveinadvancedcapitalistnations,butitwilldolittleforthedifficultlivesoftheworkingchildrenandtheirfamilies.FOILcallsforacomprehensiveapproachtowardschildlabor: XW=X` hp x (#%'0*XXW   Theorganizationofthechildrenintounionsso  thattheymayfightforabettermentoftheirworkconditionsandforhigherwagesintheshortrun.  Theconstructionofasocialdemocraticframework @ inIndia,includinganeducationsectorwhichisuniversal.  Anendtothepressuresonthebackwardcapitalist B nationsfromthetransnationalcorporationsandtheinternationalfinancialcombine.  Theconstructionofaneconomicuniversewhichis  governedbythedrivetoproducesocialjustice   andsocialwellbeing,notprofitforafewselectedpersons.  XN:X` hp x (#%'0*XN L FOIL,alongwithourfriendsandalliesontheIndianandinternationalLeft,callforareassessmentoftheroleoftheIMFcombineandofinternationalcapitalwhichworkhandinglovetoburytheinterestsandfuturesofthevastmassoftheworldspeople.WeexhortallthosewhocareforthewellbeingofthechildrenoftheworldandtheirparentstomakecleartheirdispleasureofthepoliciesoftheIMFanditsinternationalallies.Toendchildlabor,wemustendtheregimeputinplacebythosewhofavorcapitaloverourchildrenandourlaboringclasses.  ^ , (X(@Q?4  X?X AppendixA#?X X?4 ~#   @<?\  X?X CrisisinIndiasEconomicDestiny:ABriefHistory .#?X X ?\##XX X?X#+X XXXԈ J (X..(  DuringtheEmergencyregime(197577),IndiraGandhisgovernmentinitiatedapolicytoreconfigurethestatesrelationshiptoforeigntrade,businessandfinance.ThegovernmentintroducedaliberalisationpolicywhichdroppedthebarrierswhichpreventedIndianbusinessfrompurchasinggoodsfromoverseaswithoutalicense.TheIndianstate,between1947and1975,pursuedapolicyknownasimportsubstitutionwherebyindigenousbusiness(whetherpubliclyorprivatelyowned)wasurgedtoproducethoseproductswhichthecountryhithertoimported.Theprocessneitherdemocratizedtheeconomynordiditgoafterthemyriadsocialinequalities.In1961,Nehruwarnedthatthemassesdidnotshareinthecountryswealthandtheylived withouttheprimarynecessitiesoflife.Asmallurbanandruralelite,however, haveestablishedanaffluentsocietyforthemselves,anyhow,althoughIndiaasawholemaybefarfromit.+S X+X h  '?S+S?&Cp &?S  24      #?X X &?&Cpؾ#ԛThesystem,bythe  p 1970's,requiredamajoroverhaul,notablyinthesphereoflandreformsandinthedemocratizationofeconomicpowerandmeans.Ratherthanmoveinthatdirection,IndiraGandhiinitiatedaprocesstoincreasesocialwealthbyrelyinguponasimpleformula:allowindustrytoimportmachinerywhichtheywillusewithcheaplaborto producecheapgoodsfortheglobalmarket.Inthis j manner,theregimehopedtocoverthedownturnintheIndianeconomy.  L Theoilshocksofthe1970'scameaftertwoawfuldroughts(196566,196667):theIndiangovernmentwenttotheIMFtocoveramomentaryshortfallinitsbalanceofpayments(whichwassortedoutsoonafterwards).AnIMFofficial,lookingbackatIndiaspreStructuralAdjustmentProgram(SAP)phase[i.e.pre1991],commentedthatdespiteIndias reputationforheavyhandedinterventionism,whichalsoextendedtoblockingforeigninvestment,IndiahasneverthelessalsoestablishedalongtrackrecordofmacroeconomicstabilitybasedongenerallycautiousfiscaldeficitϜpolicies.?S X?X i  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  25      #?X X &?&Cp.#ԛAsthisanalystacknowledges,thingsseemed * tobefairlystableuntilthe1980's(stable,i.e.intermsofIndiasbalanceofpayments;notstableforthemillionsofpeopleforwhomsurvivalisnotasteadystate).̜ L Theinternationaldebtcrisisintheearly1980's(inMexicoandBrazilparticularly)forcedareassessmentofthepoliciesoftheIMFasthevariousstabilizationschemesappearedtoflounder.TheTreasurySecretaryoftheUnitedStates,JamesBaker,offeredtheBakerPlanin1985whichaskedtheWorldBank/IMFcombinetoimposecomprehensiveconditionsonthedebtornations.In1986,theIMFsetuptheStructuralAdjustmentFacilitytomanagetheSAPwhichconsisted P 6 ofthefollowingwellknownandfixedpolicies:devaluationofthecurrency,shrinkageofstateexpenditureandwithdrawalfromsocialwelfareprograms(toreducebudgetdeficit),liberalizationofthenationalmarket(endimportrestrictionsandeliminatesubsidiesandpricecontrols),liberalizationofthefinancialmarkets,privatizationofstateheldconcerns,compressionofrealearnings(bytheeliminationofthepracticeoflinkingorindexingwagestodomesticcommodityprices:nowwagesremainatnationallevelswhilecommoditiesareinflatedtointernationallevels)andfinally,promotionofexportsbyanymeansnecessary.?S X?X j  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  26      #?X X &?&Cp#ԛ     Inthemid1980's,RajivGandhisNewEconomicPolicyshiftedthedirectionoftheIndianeconomypriortoitsconcessionstotheIMF.Mr.Gandhisimportliberalizationpolicyresultedinlargescaleimportationofexpensivetechnologyintendedfortheproductionofluxuryconsumptiongoods(until198586,petroleumexceededcapitalgoodsinIndiasimportbill;from198687untiltheGulfWar,Indiaimportedmorecapitalgoodsthanpetroleum).Afascinationwithadvancedtechnology,withAmericanizedculturalcommodities(retailfoodgoodsandconsumerdurablesareamajorinterestamongtransnationalcorporationsinIndia)andwithmilitaryhardwareputpaidtoIndiasstableimportϜbill.?S X?X k  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  27      #?X X &?&Cp\#ԛThegovernmenthopedthattheseimportswould &v leadtointensifiedproductionforexports.Yet,thetoptwentyindustrialhousescontinuedtobenetconsumersofforeignexchange.Further,theannualillegal(i.e.untaxed)outflowinthe1980'shasbeenestimatedat$12billion,asuresignofelitenonchalance;theelite,afterall,enjoyedtheprofligatedollarexpenditurepermittedbythe   governmentwithoutasocialconscience.Alleconomicindicatorssoonwentintothered.Thedeficitincreasedfrom$5.6billionin19845to$9.4billionin198889.From198687to198990,theimportbillincreasedby300%(fromRs.125billiontoRs.354billion).Tomakeupforthisshortfall,theIndiangovernmentturnedtofourlenders: XW=X` hp x (#%'0*XXW  L the NonResidentIndians(NRIS) ,whohavenot  0' liveduptotheirexpectations;  L Commerciallenders ,whosloweddowntheir   ) lendinginthelate1980'sduetoaresourcecrunch;  L IMF ,forshorttermloans; j ,   L Exports . V -   XN:X` hp x (#%'0*XNTherealmotorforgrowthwastobeexports,butindustryseemedunabletoproduceexportablecommodities,muchtothechagrinofthegovernmentandoftheIMF.By1991,IndiawasinthemidstofaseriousdebtcrisisthatwasonlyexacerbatedbytheGulfwar.?S X?X l  '?S?S?&Cp &?S  28      #?X X &?&Cp##XX X?X#+X XXXԛShortly 3 thereafterIndiadevalueditscurrencyaspertheinstructionsoftheIMFandenteredintoitscurrentphaseofliberalisationbasedontheSAPdogma.  r6 (X(@Q+4  X+X AppendixB #+X X+4 #Ԉ  @A+\  X+X NationalUnrestandGovernmentalBargains#+X X +\2##XX X+X#+X XXX: J @ 8+\  X+XABriefHistoryoftheIndianStatesResponsetoChildLabour #+X X +\ #Ԉ ^ (X..(  TheConstitutionofIndia(1950)prohibitstheemploymentofchildreninhazardousoccupations(Article24)anddirectsthestatetosecure thatthetenderageofchildrenisnotabusedandthatcitizensarenotforcedbyeconomicnecessitytoenteravocationsnotsuitedtotheirageandstrength(Article39[e]and[f]).In1954,theMinistryofLabourdefinedchildlaborasa socialevil.Modernchildlabor,thestudyargued,hadlittletodowithIndiantraditionorwithsocioculturalreasons,butmoretodowiththecomplexprocessknownastheIndustrialRevolution.+S X+X m  '?S+S?&Cp &?S  29      #?X X &?&CpQ#ԛTocombatchild T labor,thegovernmentpassedaslateoflegalmeasuresincludingtheMinimumWagesActof1948,FactoriesActof1948,thePlantationLabourActof1951andtheMinesActof1952.Thesedevelopedmanyofthecolonialmeasures,notablytheChildren(PledgingofLabour)Actof1933andtheEmploymentofChildrenActof1938.  In1986,theIndiangovernmentpassedtheChildLabour(ProhibitionandRegulation)Actwhichbannedtheemploymentofchildrenunder14fromhazardousoccupations(includingglassandglassware,fireworksandmatchmaking,andcarpetweaving).ThegovernmentsetupaNationalPolicyonChildLabourwhichframedactionpoliciesforeducation,health,nutrition,integratedchilddevelopmentandvocationalemployment. ~   L WhydidthegovernmentpassanActwhichdidlittlemorethanreplicatetheineffectivelegislationonthebooks?Twotragediesintheearly1980'sturnedthenationsattentiontotheplightofchildlabor:on19September1981,inSivakasi,TamilNadu,whichisthehomeoffireworksproduction,sixchildrenandtwentysixadultsburnedtodeathintheArunachalamFireworksplant;inFebruary1982,inChellapathy,TamilNadu,sixchildrencharredtodeathinafactory.Theseincidentsprovokedanoutcryovertheintensifieduseofchildrenintheprocessofproduction.TheLefttackledtheissueinsidetheparliamentaswellasonthestreetsandinthefactories.Further,theincreaseduseofchildreninternationallyshamedtheIndiangovernmentwhichtookthemeasuretodemonstrateitsprogressivecredentials.TheLabourMinister,P.A.Sangmaoffersthebestexampleofthegovernmentsenduringmotivationsforsuchlegalactions: Itisamattertheworldisconcernedabout....andwearetryingtoshow 40 thatwearealsodoingourbesttoeliminatethisproblem(emphasisadded). n  '?X X X?X?&Cp & X?X  30      ?S &?&CpԀ#?&Cp &?Sg#Therollcallofdeathsofchildworkers P2 continues:Jhansion6October1994(70livesofwhichmanychildren),Sivakasion25November1994(12childrendead)andRhotakon24August1995(10childrendead).  V6 ?\  &?&Cp P   (X(@N GroupstoContact ?X X ?\Ԉ h (X..(ҜTheConcernedforWorkingChildren303/2,LalbahadurShastriNagarVimanpuraPostAnnasandrapalyaBangalore,56017India.SouthAsianCoalitiononChildServitude74AravaliApartmentsKalkajiNewDelhi,110019India. B ЇVikasAdhyayanKendraD1Shivdham,62LinkRoadMalad(W)Bombay,400064India.JanwadiMahilaSamitiVithalbhaiPatelHouseRafiMargNewDelhi,110001India.  D' #XX X?X#